Longitudinal Mechanical Waves

Introduction to longitudinal mechanical waves:
A mechanical wave is a periodic disturbance which can be produced only in a material medium and it transfers energy from one point to medium and it transfers energy from one point to another without there being a direct contact between the two points.

Longitudinal waves are one of the types of mechanical waves. If the particles of the medium forward and backward along the same direction in which the energy propagates then the wave is known as the longitudinal wave.

Sound waves in air and the waves produce in a spring when it is pushed and pulled are examples of the longitudinal waves.Having problem with Wave Theory of Light keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.


Description of longitudinal waves with example

Consider a gas or air enclosed in a cylinder. The vertical lines represent different layers of the air in undisturbed position when no energy is travelling through it. Now when a longitudinal wave is sent through the medium, the layers of the air begin to vibrate in the same direction as the direction of the propagation of energy. In doing so a certain number of neighboring layers are brought closer together. At these points the pressure increases and a compression is set up.

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Compressions and rarefactions in longitudinal waves


At fixed distances compressions the layers are moved apart. Here the pressure decreases and a rarefaction is set up. As the energy propagates the compressions change to rarefactions and vice verse and they are equal spaced. The distance between the centers of consecutive compressions or consecutive or consecutive rarefactions is the wave length of a longitudinal wave. All other definitions given for transverse waves are valid for longitudinal waves as well. The longitudinal waves consist of alternate compressions and rarefactions. The maximum displacement of a layer on either side of its mean position is the amplitude of the longitudinal wave. The number of complete vibrations of the layers of the air in one second represents the frequency of the wave.

Inner and Outer Planets

Introduction to inner and outer planets:

Solar system consists of eight planets and they are divided into two groups inner planets and outer planets. The first four planets closer to the sun are inner planets and they are mercury, Venus, earth and mars. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are outer planets. Asteroid belt separates the inner and outer planets and this is the region where thousands of asteroids can be found. Both inner and outer planets are characterized by different features. Inner planets are called terrestrial planets  as they have a solid surface and are similar to earth. Inner planets are composed of heavy metals such as iron and nickel and have few or no moons.

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Inner planets


Mercury: It is one of the densest planets in the solar system.The smallest  planet, mercury has no moons and is comprised mostly of iron and nickel.

Venus: It is known for its brightness and it has a rocky surface which is similar to the moon, it is hidden by its thick yellow atmosphere. Venus has no moon similar like mercury.

Earth: Earth is the largest and densest of the inner planets and it is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist.

Mars: It is smaller than earth and Venus and it possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide  and  its surface is peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus moons and rift valleys such as Valles marineris. Two tiny natural satellites are present in mars and they are Deimos  and Phobos.

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Outer planets


Jupiter: It is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is comprised with a large amount of hydrogen and helium. It has 63 known well satellites.

Saturn: It has several similarities with that of Jupiter and it is distinguished by its extensive ring system. The rings are made up of small ice and rock particles.

Uranus: It is the lightest of all the outer planets and it has a much colder core than the other gas giants and radiates very little heat into space.

Neptune: It is slightly smaller than Uranus and it is more massive and dense. It also radiates more internal heat but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn.

4 Forces of Physics

Introduction to 4 forces of physics:

The four forces of physics are also termed as the fundamental forces of physics and they are: Gravity, Electromagnetism, Weak Nuclear Force also known as Weak Interaction and Strong Nuclear Force also known as Strong Interaction. Discussed  below are the types of forces.


The 4 types of forces in Physics


Let us see the four types of forces in physics

Gravity:

Gravity is the first fundamental force and it has the maximum reach but minimum strength. It is a force that is attractive and helps to keep 2 bodies close to each other even in void. It is the force that binds the planets in their orbits around the sun and the moon in its orbit around the earth. It is this force that helps things to stay on the earth. If it would not have been there we would not have been walking on earth.

Electromagnetism:

It is the second force by virtue of which charged particles interact with each other. Electric and magnetic forces were considered different but it was proved that these are same. It is the force which is most prevalent and it affects things kept far away at a reasonable force.

Weak Interaction:

It is a force which is quite powerful and it aids in phenomena like beta decay. It has been combined with electromagnetism as a unique interaction called weak interaction. It is the force that acts on atomic nucleus scales.

Strong Interaction:

It is the strongest force and has been appropriately named the way it is. It binds together the protons and the neutrons together. It is strong enough to bind together repulsive forces also that are present in atoms amongst positive protons.

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Conclusion for the 4 types of forces in physics


We can conclude that, Scientists believe that these 4 forces of physics are just 4 different names but in reality they are a unified force, a single entity. They believe that these 4 forces are run by a single force which is waiting to be discovered. By these 4 forces of physics, how particles react with each other and are the fundamental forces as we have seen above.

What Makes up the Atmosphere

Introduction to makes up the atmosphere:

The atmosphere is the layer of gases, which surrounds the earth containing air mixed with the water vapor. In beginning, the earth was much bigger and much cooler with no atmosphere, but later as the earth, started contracting and it became smaller and warmer after the process of differentiation. During this phase gases like water vapor, hydrogen, helium, methane and ammonia were liberated which form the atmosphere. Gradually gases lighter than water like hydrogen and helium were formed. Free oxygen came into the atmosphere, with the evolution of autotrophs from heterotrophs. Here we discuss how the atmosphere of earth makes up.

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What makes up the atmosphere?


Atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 0.07% of other gases. The percentage of water vapor in the atmosphere is variable. There are different layers in the atmosphere, let us know them:

Thermosphere: In this layer of the atmosphere, temperature increases until they approach 2000°F or 1090°C at noon. The air is even thinner at this altitude than it is in the upper atmosphere. In fact, there is practically a vacuum so that little heat can be conducted. It was once called the ionosphere because of ionization of molecules and atoms that occurs in this layer, mostly because of ultra violet, but also X rays and gamma rays. Ionization refers to the process whereby atoms are changed to ions through the removal or addition of electrons, giving them an electrical charge.

Mesosphere: Right below thermosphere lies Mesosphere. In this layer of the atmosphere, temperature tends to drop with the increase in the altitude.

Stratosphere: Just below Mesosphere lies Stratosphere. This is one of the main layers and the temperature here is stratified which means that the cool layers are below the warm ones.

Troposphere: This layer is the lowest one of all and contains maximum water vapour. This layer constitutes the most of atmosphere's mass which is upto 75%.

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Conclusion for the constituents of atmosphere:

From the above discussion, we can conclude that air is essential for the survival of life. Air contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, argon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen, ozone, carbon mono oxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc. Oxygen of the atmosphere is essential for photosynthesis. Nitrogen is also present in the atmosphere, which is taken by the some plants directly. Nitrogen is also used for the production of ammonia, which is used for making the fertilizers.

Photovoltaic Solar Cells

Introduction to photovoltaic solar cells

The first practical photovoltaic solar cell was made by selenium in 1954. This photovoltaic solar cell could convert only 1% of solar energy into electricity. Now these days, solar cells are usually produced from the semiconductor materials, such as silicon and gallium. Semiconductors are the materials, which do not allow to pass electricity at the normal conditions. The conductivity of the semiconductors increases appreciably if certain types of impurities are added. This addition of impurities is called doping.

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Photovoltaic Solar cell


A device, which converts sunlight directly into electricity, is called a solar cell. The semiconducting material to which a small quantity of a specific impurity is added is called doped semiconductor material. For example, when a small quantity of arsenic is added to ultrapure silicon, the silicon so obtained is termed as doped silicon. The conductivity of such semiconductor materials increases when light falls on them and a potential difference is developed between the two points in the semiconductor material. This cause a flow of a electric current. A single silicon solar cell of about 4 squared centimeter develops a potential difference of about 0.5 volt at 60 milliampere current. Due to this reason the solar cell is also called as photovoltaic cell. A single solar cell produces very small current at a small potential difference. So, in practice, we use a large number of solar cells connected together. This combination of a large number of solar cells is called a solar cell panel. A solar cell panel can provide stronger currents under high potential difference. Photovoltaic solar cells gained much importance in the last few decades due to the following reasons:

(i) The fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum etc are depleting very fastly, whereas the photovoltaic solar cells are renewable sources of energy.

(ii) Combustion of fossil fuels produce high air pollution and leads to green house effect whereas photovoltaic solar cells does not produce any type of pollution.

(iii) It is an energy source that is inexpensive.

(iv) These are used in remote areas very easily.

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Uses of Photovoltaic Solar Cells


(i) Photovoltaic solar cells are used in street lighting in rural areas.

(ii) Photovoltaic solar cells are used for operating water pumps for domestic and agricultural purposes.

(iii) Photovoltaic solar cells are used in satellites.

(iv) Photovoltaic solar cells are used to operate TV and other electrical appliances in our daily life.

Transformer Output Voltage

Introduction to transformer output voltage:

A transformer is a device, which can convert high alternating voltage into low alternating voltage and low alternating voltage into high alternating voltage. The transformer is based on the phenomenon of the mutual induction. If the transformer converts, the high alternating voltage into low alternating voltage it is called the step down transformer and if it converts the low alternating voltage into high alternating voltage it is called the step up transformer.I like to share this Formula of Density with you all through my article.


Construction of Transformer output voltage :


A simple transformer consists of the two coils called primary coil and the other is called the secondary coil. In one of the coil the number of turns of thick, insulated copper wire is less as compared to the other. If the primary coil has more number of turns it behaves like a step down transformer and if the secondary coil has more number of turns it behaves like a step up transformer. If the numbers of turns in the primary coil are Np and the number of turns in the secondary coil are Ns. Let the input voltage is Ep and the output voltage is Es. According to the energy conservation, we get

Ep / Np = Es / Ns = k ( K is called the transformation ratio)

Here we get the output voltage Ep = Es Np / Ns

If Ns < Np then the output voltage is more than the input voltage and the transformer is step up.

If Ns > Np then output voltage is less than input voltage and the transformer is step down.

As the voltage is stepped up or stepped down the current is also reduced or increased in the same ratio.

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Example for the transformer output voltage :


The ratio of the number of turns in the primary and the secondary coil of a step up transformer is 1: 200. It is connected to ac mains of 200 V. Calculate the voltage developed in the secondary coil.

Solution

Here, Np / Ns = 1 / 200, Ep = 200 V

Es / Ep = Ns / Np

Es / 200 = 200 / 1

Es = 40000 Volt.

Wave Model of Light

Introduction to wave model of light

Up to the middle of the 17th century, it was believed that light consisted of stream of corpuscles, emitting by the light source and travelled outwards from the source in straight lines. This theory is known as the Newton’s corpuscular theory. However, after 1827, the experiments of Young and Fresnel on interference, and the measurement of the velocity of light in liquids by the Foucault demonstrated phenomena, which could not be correctly explained by corpuscles theory but could be explained by the wave theory of light.


Huygens wave theory of light


In 1678, Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to this wave theory, light travels in the form of waves. These waves after emerging from the light source travel in all directions with the velocity of light. As the wave requires the medium to travel, Huygens imagined an all-pervading medium called aluminiferous ether. It was assumed that the hypothetical medium is weightless and can penetrate through matter. It has all properties necessary for the propagation of light waves. Hence, it was assumed that the density of ether is very small and the elasticity is very large. Light waves travel in such a hypothetical medium. When these waves fall upon the retina of the eye, they cause the sensation of sight. Huygens proposed the geometrical construction to explain the propagation of a wave front in the medium and determined the position of the wave front after any interval of time. They are known as the Huygen’s principle.



Conclusion of Huygeng’s wave theory of light


Every particle of the medium situated on the wave front acts as a new wave source from which the fresh waves originate. These waves are called the secondary wavelets.

The secondary wavelets travel in the medium in all directions with the speed of the original wave in the medium.

The envelope of the secondary wavelets in the forward direction at any instant gives the new wave front at that instant.